ORIGINAL ABSTRACT

Water hyacinth (Pontederia crassipes) is one of the most aggressive aquatic weeds globally, posing ecological, economic, and social threats to freshwater ecosystems. In response to its widespread proliferation, numerous control strategies have been developed and tested across different regions. This systematic review evaluates global efforts to manage water hyacinth, with a particular focus on the effectiveness, sustainability, and practical applicability of biological, chemical, physical, and integrated control methods. A total of 141 peer-reviewed articles and case studies published between 1979 and 2024 were analyzed using structured keyword searches across academic databases. The review found that biological control is the most widely employed strategy (56.8%), particularly in Africa, which accounted for more than half of the global research efforts on water hyacinth management. Among chemical methods, herbicides such as 2,4-D and glyphosate have demonstrated high efficacy but raise concerns regarding environmental and socioeconomic impacts. Physical processes, while safe, are labor-intensive and less feasible on larger scales. Integrated approaches, which combine multiple strategies, emerged as the most sustainable and context-sensitive option. Notably, the potential for water hyacinth utilization, especially in pollution control (27.08%), bioenergy, composting, and handicrafts, offers an additional pathway for sustainable management. This review emphasizes the importance of integrated and sustainable approaches, encouraging future efforts to focus on technological innovations and practical utilization.